Tapio Varis, professor emeritus
As Tapio Varis will discuss further in Florence at the First European Festival of Journalism and Media Literacy, this paper is going to focus on several questions that need to be answered in order to discuss the topic: What do we think of journalism, and how is it connected with the media? We also need to ask what do we understand with media literacy and its future?
The Western journalist schools traditionally analyze the journalistic media in three groups:
-Mainstream media have opinions, viewpoints, slant, bias, partiality as well as the journalists. They have trained reporters, editors, publishers, and journalist collectives (unions), “watchdog of the government”
-Alternative media are watching the watchers, and may be independent and critical (unabhängig und kritisch).
-Social media means“trending news” among friends, regardless of authenticity, accuracy, or intent. Everybody behaves as a “journalist” without controlled professional ethics
Advocacy journalism is a genre of journalism that adopts a non-objective viewpoint, usually for some social or political purpose. Some advocacy journalists reject the idea that the traditional ideal of objectivity is possible or practical, in part due to the perceived influence of corporate sponsors in advertising
The media and journalists are not living in a vacuum. The “Zeitgeist” (or “Zeitenwende”) determines much of the journalistic media culture. In Europe, media literacy is intrinsic to a healthy democracy and a response to the complex media landscape. Media literacy is needed to strengthen media freedom and media pluralism and in the fight against radicalisation. The EU strategy to counteract propaganda emphasizes, among other things, the training of journalists, the creation of independent media hubs, and the support of media diversity. The current information warfare has extended from hate speech to disinformation and misinformation.
In fact we have moved to the world of war propaganda, which Quincy Wright defined in 1965 in his research “A Study of war” as follows: “The objects of war propaganda are the unification of our side, the disunion of the enemy, and the good will of neutrals.” (p.1095). A basic introduction to war as a continuation of politics was given by Carl von Clausewitz in 1832: “War is an instrument of policy” (p.363). Long before the Westerners, the Chinese Sun Tzu dealt with these issues 2000-2500 before the Common Era.
In modern times, The League of Nations passed a resolution in 1925 on the Collaboration of the Press in the Organisation of Peace. It spoke of “moral disarmament”, which was understood to be a concomitant condition of material disarmament. In 1936, the League of Nations approved an International Convention Concerning the Use of Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace. This lengthy Convention came into existence after the politicization and propaganda of radio and other forms of international communication in Europe. The Convention, which is still in force, speaks about the need to prohibit transmissions that are likely to harm international understanding.
The Constitution of UNESCO was approved in 1945 to “build peace in the minds of men” and modified to include also women. Peace was founded upon the intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind. Communication had to be developed “for the purposes of mutual understanding and a truer and more perfect knowledge of each other’s lives.” The heated debates over the UNESCO documents and declarations prevented progress in the field of media and communication. In the 21st century, both the EU and UNESCO started to promote programmes on Media and Information Literacy.
In the global context, a new approach has been developed by the new groupings of the Global South. In scholarly research, one such approach has been developed by Darwis Khudori and many other scholars of this group (https://bandungspirit.org). They identify five areas of global control which are central after the colonial era:
– Sciences and Technology
– Information, Communication, Media
– Financial System and Institutions
– Weapons of Mass Destruction
– Control over access to natural resources
Some of the areas are no longer dominated by hegemonistic powers, but the area of global media and communication is not yet diversified to reflect the new realities. The increasing flow of contradictory information and people’s experiences and perceptions create cognitive dissonance. This means mental stress with new information that contradicts existing beliefs, ideas and values. To avoid cognitive dissonance, people aggregate with like-minded others. It also leads to confirmation bias to pass along information that confirms the established opinions. The result is to create own closed information bubble.
What about World Top Journalists and 2024 media world?
Following the American domination of the world media in general, it is no wonder that the key American media and top journalists lead the international discussion. It is also the American media freedom and journalists individualism that contribute to this, as exemplified by CNN or FOX. Now, there are voices from China (CGTN), INDIA (WION) and Qatar (al Jazeera), for example, although the Russian RT is banned from European audiences. In Europe, there are important media, but their role is often limited to language regions like Weltwoche in Switzerland, Austria and Germany (“unabhängig kritisch”).
In this American-dominated world news media, it was important and impressive that TuckerCarlson was able to have the historical interview of Vladimir Putin on February 6th 2024. It has been widely discussed among journalists and different media, and there are many elements that could be discussed. But one detail in the context of this paper is very interesting. In a short period, Carlsson asked Putin about “who blew up the Nord Stream pipelines?” and continued:
TC: “The biggest act of industrial terrorism ever” Why do you not present and win propaganda victory?”
Putin:” In the world of propaganda, it is very difficult to defeat the United States because the United States controls all the world´s media and many European media. The ultimate beneficiary of the biggest European media are American financial institutions”
It is important to remember that the critical media coverage was first brought out by well-known American journalist Seymour Hersh. He was criticised for relying only on one source, but questioning his professional ethics is not fair given the record of his lifetime journalistic recordings.
In conclusion, we may return to the concept of advocacy journalism and professional ethics. How much should the ideological, political, or economic interests influence the work of journalists? A good comparison can be made of the professional ethics of scientists as formulated by the sociologist Robert Merton in 1942. The Mertonian ethos of modern science included the following norms:
– communism (which for political reasons was changed to communitarianism): all scientists should have common ownership of scientific goods (intellectual property), to promote collective collaboration; secrecy is the opposite of this norm,
– universalism: scientific validity is independent of the sociopolitical status/personal attributes of its participants.
– disinterestedness: scientific institutions act for the benefit of a common scientific enterprise, rather than for specific outcomes or the resulting personal gain of individuals within them,
– organized skepticism: scientific claims should be exposed to critical scrutiny before being accepted: both in methodology and institutional codes of conduct.
The norms of disinterestedness and organized scepticism are relevant to objective journalism. Can advocate journalism with vested interests be objective?
What about media literacy?
Journalism is more than delivering facts and data. Furthermore, sociologically degenerated facts may be only opinions while well-argumented opinions may become knowledge. Journalism deals with all human senses in the Aristotelian way. In the global world, however, there are also other philosophical approaches to communication.
The term media literacy was developed by the EU and UNESCO as best to include all forms of media communication. In journalism, we may discuss specifically news literacy, film literacy, digital literacy, etc. In 2012, the International Institute of Communications discussed in Singapore whether we should use the term communication literacy. In Europe, Jürgen Habermas has said that, in a sense, we are talking about universal skills of communication. We are born with the potential to use them to create a better society.
When society and technology advance also, basic concepts develop and get new meanings. In the global world, we may need to develop the skills and competencies for multicivilizational literacies.
Related Posts
Tapio Varis, professor emeritus
As Tapio Varis will discuss further in Florence at the First European Festival of Journalism and Media Literacy, this paper is going to focus on several questions that need to be answered in order to discuss the topic: What do we think of journalism, and how is it connected with the media? We also need to ask what do we understand with media literacy and its future?
The Western journalist schools traditionally analyze the journalistic media in three groups:
-Mainstream media have opinions, viewpoints, slant, bias, partiality as well as the journalists. They have trained reporters, editors, publishers, and journalist collectives (unions), “watchdog of the government”
-Alternative media are watching the watchers, and may be independent and critical (unabhängig und kritisch).
-Social media means“trending news” among friends, regardless of authenticity, accuracy, or intent. Everybody behaves as a “journalist” without controlled professional ethics
Advocacy journalism is a genre of journalism that adopts a non-objective viewpoint, usually for some social or political purpose. Some advocacy journalists reject the idea that the traditional ideal of objectivity is possible or practical, in part due to the perceived influence of corporate sponsors in advertising
The media and journalists are not living in a vacuum. The “Zeitgeist” (or “Zeitenwende”) determines much of the journalistic media culture. In Europe, media literacy is intrinsic to a healthy democracy and a response to the complex media landscape. Media literacy is needed to strengthen media freedom and media pluralism and in the fight against radicalisation. The EU strategy to counteract propaganda emphasizes, among other things, the training of journalists, the creation of independent media hubs, and the support of media diversity. The current information warfare has extended from hate speech to disinformation and misinformation.
In fact we have moved to the world of war propaganda, which Quincy Wright defined in 1965 in his research “A Study of war” as follows: “The objects of war propaganda are the unification of our side, the disunion of the enemy, and the good will of neutrals.” (p.1095). A basic introduction to war as a continuation of politics was given by Carl von Clausewitz in 1832: “War is an instrument of policy” (p.363). Long before the Westerners, the Chinese Sun Tzu dealt with these issues 2000-2500 before the Common Era.
In modern times, The League of Nations passed a resolution in 1925 on the Collaboration of the Press in the Organisation of Peace. It spoke of “moral disarmament”, which was understood to be a concomitant condition of material disarmament. In 1936, the League of Nations approved an International Convention Concerning the Use of Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace. This lengthy Convention came into existence after the politicization and propaganda of radio and other forms of international communication in Europe. The Convention, which is still in force, speaks about the need to prohibit transmissions that are likely to harm international understanding.
The Constitution of UNESCO was approved in 1945 to “build peace in the minds of men” and modified to include also women. Peace was founded upon the intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind. Communication had to be developed “for the purposes of mutual understanding and a truer and more perfect knowledge of each other’s lives.” The heated debates over the UNESCO documents and declarations prevented progress in the field of media and communication. In the 21st century, both the EU and UNESCO started to promote programmes on Media and Information Literacy.
In the global context, a new approach has been developed by the new groupings of the Global South. In scholarly research, one such approach has been developed by Darwis Khudori and many other scholars of this group (https://bandungspirit.org). They identify five areas of global control which are central after the colonial era:
– Sciences and Technology
– Information, Communication, Media
– Financial System and Institutions
– Weapons of Mass Destruction
– Control over access to natural resources
Some of the areas are no longer dominated by hegemonistic powers, but the area of global media and communication is not yet diversified to reflect the new realities. The increasing flow of contradictory information and people’s experiences and perceptions create cognitive dissonance. This means mental stress with new information that contradicts existing beliefs, ideas and values. To avoid cognitive dissonance, people aggregate with like-minded others. It also leads to confirmation bias to pass along information that confirms the established opinions. The result is to create own closed information bubble.
What about World Top Journalists and 2024 media world?
Following the American domination of the world media in general, it is no wonder that the key American media and top journalists lead the international discussion. It is also the American media freedom and journalists individualism that contribute to this, as exemplified by CNN or FOX. Now, there are voices from China (CGTN), INDIA (WION) and Qatar (al Jazeera), for example, although the Russian RT is banned from European audiences. In Europe, there are important media, but their role is often limited to language regions like Weltwoche in Switzerland, Austria and Germany (“unabhängig kritisch”).
In this American-dominated world news media, it was important and impressive that TuckerCarlson was able to have the historical interview of Vladimir Putin on February 6th 2024. It has been widely discussed among journalists and different media, and there are many elements that could be discussed. But one detail in the context of this paper is very interesting. In a short period, Carlsson asked Putin about “who blew up the Nord Stream pipelines?” and continued:
TC: “The biggest act of industrial terrorism ever” Why do you not present and win propaganda victory?”
Putin:” In the world of propaganda, it is very difficult to defeat the United States because the United States controls all the world´s media and many European media. The ultimate beneficiary of the biggest European media are American financial institutions”
It is important to remember that the critical media coverage was first brought out by well-known American journalist Seymour Hersh. He was criticised for relying only on one source, but questioning his professional ethics is not fair given the record of his lifetime journalistic recordings.
In conclusion, we may return to the concept of advocacy journalism and professional ethics. How much should the ideological, political, or economic interests influence the work of journalists? A good comparison can be made of the professional ethics of scientists as formulated by the sociologist Robert Merton in 1942. The Mertonian ethos of modern science included the following norms:
– communism (which for political reasons was changed to communitarianism): all scientists should have common ownership of scientific goods (intellectual property), to promote collective collaboration; secrecy is the opposite of this norm,
– universalism: scientific validity is independent of the sociopolitical status/personal attributes of its participants.
– disinterestedness: scientific institutions act for the benefit of a common scientific enterprise, rather than for specific outcomes or the resulting personal gain of individuals within them,
– organized skepticism: scientific claims should be exposed to critical scrutiny before being accepted: both in methodology and institutional codes of conduct.
The norms of disinterestedness and organized scepticism are relevant to objective journalism. Can advocate journalism with vested interests be objective?
What about media literacy?
Journalism is more than delivering facts and data. Furthermore, sociologically degenerated facts may be only opinions while well-argumented opinions may become knowledge. Journalism deals with all human senses in the Aristotelian way. In the global world, however, there are also other philosophical approaches to communication.
The term media literacy was developed by the EU and UNESCO as best to include all forms of media communication. In journalism, we may discuss specifically news literacy, film literacy, digital literacy, etc. In 2012, the International Institute of Communications discussed in Singapore whether we should use the term communication literacy. In Europe, Jürgen Habermas has said that, in a sense, we are talking about universal skills of communication. We are born with the potential to use them to create a better society.
When society and technology advance also, basic concepts develop and get new meanings. In the global world, we may need to develop the skills and competencies for multicivilizational literacies.
Related Posts
Tapio Varis, professor emeritus
As Tapio Varis will discuss further in Florence at the First European Festival of Journalism and Media Literacy, this paper is going to focus on several questions that need to be answered in order to discuss the topic: What do we think of journalism, and how is it connected with the media? We also need to ask what do we understand with media literacy and its future?
The Western journalist schools traditionally analyze the journalistic media in three groups:
-Mainstream media have opinions, viewpoints, slant, bias, partiality as well as the journalists. They have trained reporters, editors, publishers, and journalist collectives (unions), “watchdog of the government”
-Alternative media are watching the watchers, and may be independent and critical (unabhängig und kritisch).
-Social media means“trending news” among friends, regardless of authenticity, accuracy, or intent. Everybody behaves as a “journalist” without controlled professional ethics
Advocacy journalism is a genre of journalism that adopts a non-objective viewpoint, usually for some social or political purpose. Some advocacy journalists reject the idea that the traditional ideal of objectivity is possible or practical, in part due to the perceived influence of corporate sponsors in advertising
The media and journalists are not living in a vacuum. The “Zeitgeist” (or “Zeitenwende”) determines much of the journalistic media culture. In Europe, media literacy is intrinsic to a healthy democracy and a response to the complex media landscape. Media literacy is needed to strengthen media freedom and media pluralism and in the fight against radicalisation. The EU strategy to counteract propaganda emphasizes, among other things, the training of journalists, the creation of independent media hubs, and the support of media diversity. The current information warfare has extended from hate speech to disinformation and misinformation.
In fact we have moved to the world of war propaganda, which Quincy Wright defined in 1965 in his research “A Study of war” as follows: “The objects of war propaganda are the unification of our side, the disunion of the enemy, and the good will of neutrals.” (p.1095). A basic introduction to war as a continuation of politics was given by Carl von Clausewitz in 1832: “War is an instrument of policy” (p.363). Long before the Westerners, the Chinese Sun Tzu dealt with these issues 2000-2500 before the Common Era.
In modern times, The League of Nations passed a resolution in 1925 on the Collaboration of the Press in the Organisation of Peace. It spoke of “moral disarmament”, which was understood to be a concomitant condition of material disarmament. In 1936, the League of Nations approved an International Convention Concerning the Use of Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace. This lengthy Convention came into existence after the politicization and propaganda of radio and other forms of international communication in Europe. The Convention, which is still in force, speaks about the need to prohibit transmissions that are likely to harm international understanding.
The Constitution of UNESCO was approved in 1945 to “build peace in the minds of men” and modified to include also women. Peace was founded upon the intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind. Communication had to be developed “for the purposes of mutual understanding and a truer and more perfect knowledge of each other’s lives.” The heated debates over the UNESCO documents and declarations prevented progress in the field of media and communication. In the 21st century, both the EU and UNESCO started to promote programmes on Media and Information Literacy.
In the global context, a new approach has been developed by the new groupings of the Global South. In scholarly research, one such approach has been developed by Darwis Khudori and many other scholars of this group (https://bandungspirit.org). They identify five areas of global control which are central after the colonial era:
– Sciences and Technology
– Information, Communication, Media
– Financial System and Institutions
– Weapons of Mass Destruction
– Control over access to natural resources
Some of the areas are no longer dominated by hegemonistic powers, but the area of global media and communication is not yet diversified to reflect the new realities. The increasing flow of contradictory information and people’s experiences and perceptions create cognitive dissonance. This means mental stress with new information that contradicts existing beliefs, ideas and values. To avoid cognitive dissonance, people aggregate with like-minded others. It also leads to confirmation bias to pass along information that confirms the established opinions. The result is to create own closed information bubble.
What about World Top Journalists and 2024 media world?
Following the American domination of the world media in general, it is no wonder that the key American media and top journalists lead the international discussion. It is also the American media freedom and journalists individualism that contribute to this, as exemplified by CNN or FOX. Now, there are voices from China (CGTN), INDIA (WION) and Qatar (al Jazeera), for example, although the Russian RT is banned from European audiences. In Europe, there are important media, but their role is often limited to language regions like Weltwoche in Switzerland, Austria and Germany (“unabhängig kritisch”).
In this American-dominated world news media, it was important and impressive that TuckerCarlson was able to have the historical interview of Vladimir Putin on February 6th 2024. It has been widely discussed among journalists and different media, and there are many elements that could be discussed. But one detail in the context of this paper is very interesting. In a short period, Carlsson asked Putin about “who blew up the Nord Stream pipelines?” and continued:
TC: “The biggest act of industrial terrorism ever” Why do you not present and win propaganda victory?”
Putin:” In the world of propaganda, it is very difficult to defeat the United States because the United States controls all the world´s media and many European media. The ultimate beneficiary of the biggest European media are American financial institutions”
It is important to remember that the critical media coverage was first brought out by well-known American journalist Seymour Hersh. He was criticised for relying only on one source, but questioning his professional ethics is not fair given the record of his lifetime journalistic recordings.
In conclusion, we may return to the concept of advocacy journalism and professional ethics. How much should the ideological, political, or economic interests influence the work of journalists? A good comparison can be made of the professional ethics of scientists as formulated by the sociologist Robert Merton in 1942. The Mertonian ethos of modern science included the following norms:
– communism (which for political reasons was changed to communitarianism): all scientists should have common ownership of scientific goods (intellectual property), to promote collective collaboration; secrecy is the opposite of this norm,
– universalism: scientific validity is independent of the sociopolitical status/personal attributes of its participants.
– disinterestedness: scientific institutions act for the benefit of a common scientific enterprise, rather than for specific outcomes or the resulting personal gain of individuals within them,
– organized skepticism: scientific claims should be exposed to critical scrutiny before being accepted: both in methodology and institutional codes of conduct.
The norms of disinterestedness and organized scepticism are relevant to objective journalism. Can advocate journalism with vested interests be objective?
What about media literacy?
Journalism is more than delivering facts and data. Furthermore, sociologically degenerated facts may be only opinions while well-argumented opinions may become knowledge. Journalism deals with all human senses in the Aristotelian way. In the global world, however, there are also other philosophical approaches to communication.
The term media literacy was developed by the EU and UNESCO as best to include all forms of media communication. In journalism, we may discuss specifically news literacy, film literacy, digital literacy, etc. In 2012, the International Institute of Communications discussed in Singapore whether we should use the term communication literacy. In Europe, Jürgen Habermas has said that, in a sense, we are talking about universal skills of communication. We are born with the potential to use them to create a better society.
When society and technology advance also, basic concepts develop and get new meanings. In the global world, we may need to develop the skills and competencies for multicivilizational literacies.
